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1798-1800 Undeclared Naval War with France. This contest
included land actions, such as that in the Dominican Republic city of Puerto
Plata where marines capture a French privateer under the guns of the forts.
Congress authorized military action through a series of statutes.
1801-05 Tripoli. The First Barbary War included the US$ George
Washington and Philadelphia affairs and the Eaton expedition, during which a
few marines landed with US Agent William Eaton to raise a force against Tripoli
in an effort to free the crew of the Philadelphia. Tripoli declared war but not
the US, although Congress authorized US military action by statute.
1806 Mexico (Spanish territory).
Capt. ZM Pike, with a platoon of troops,
invades Spanish territory at
the headwaters of the Rio Grande on orders from Gen. James Wilkinson.
He is made prisoner
without résistance at a fort he constructed in present day Colorado,
taken to Mexico, and later released after
seizure of his
papers.
1806-10 Gulf
of Mexico. American gunboats operated from New Orleans against Spanish and
French privateers off the Mississippi Delta, chiefly under Capt. John Shaw and
Master Commandant David Porter.
1810 West Florida (Spanish territory).
Gov. Claiborne of Louisiana, on orders of the President, occupied with troops
territory in dispute east of the Mississippi River as far as the Pearl River,
later the eastern boundary of Louisiana. He was authorized to seize as far east
as the Perdido River.
1812 Amelia Island and other parts of east
Florida, then under Spain. Temporary possession was authorized by President
Madison and by Congress, to prevent occupation by any other power; but
possession was obtained by Gen. George Matthews in so irregular a manner that
his measures were disavowed by the President.
War of 1812 On June 18, 1812, the US declared war between the
US and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Among the issues
leading to the war were British interception of neutral ships and
blockades of the United
States during British hostilities with France.
Forgotten War
of 1812
1813 West Florida (Spanish territory). On
authority given by
Congress, General Wilkinson seized Mobile Bay in April with 600 soldiers. A
small Spanish garrison gave way. The US advanced into disputed territory to the
Perdido River, as projected in 1810. No fighting.
1813-14 Marquesas
Islands. United States forces built a fort on the
island of Nukahiva to protect
three prize ships which had been captured from the British.
1814
Spanish Florida. Andrew Jackson took Pensacola and drove out the British with
whom the United States was at war.
1814-25 Caribbean. Engagements
between pirates and American ships or squadrons took place repeatedly
especially ashore and offshore about Cuba, Puerto Rico, Santo Domingo, and
Yucatan. Three thousand pirate attacks on merchantmen were reported between
1815 and 1823. In 1822 Commodore James Biddle employed a squadron of two
frigates, four sloops of war, two brigs, four schooners, and two gunboats in
the West Indies.
1815 Algiers. The second Barbary War was declared
against the US by the Dey of Algiers of the Barbary states, an act not
reciprocated by the United States. Congress did authorize a military expedition
by statutes. A large fleet under Decatur attacked Algiers and obtained
indemnities.
1815 Tripoli. After securing an agreement from Algiers,
Decatur demonstrated with his squadron at Tunis and Tripoli, where he secured
indemnities for offenses during the War of 1812.
1816 Spanish Florida. US
forces destroyed Nicholls Fort, called also Negro Fort, which harbored raiders
making forays into US territory.
1816-18 Spanish Florida - First
Seminole War.
Seminole Indians, whose area is a haven for escaped
slaves and border ruffians, are attacked and pursued into northern Florida by
troops under Generals Jackson and Gaines.
Spanish posts are attacked
and occupied, British citizens executed.
1817 Amelia Island
(Spanish territory off Florida). Under orders of President Monroe, US forces
landed and expelled a group of smugglers, adventurers, and freebooters.
1818 Oregon. The US$ Ontario, dispatched from Washington, landed at the
Columbia River and in August took possession of Oregon territory.
Britain had conceded sovereignty but Russia and Spain asserted claims to the
area.
1819 Floridas ceded to the
US.
1820-23 Africa. Naval units raid the
slave traffic pursuant to the 1819
act of Congress.
1822 Cuba. US naval forces land on the northwest coast
of Cuba and burn a pirate outpost.
1823 Cuba. Brief landings
in pursuit of pirates occurred April 8 near Escondido; April 16 near
Cayo Blanco; July 11 at Siquapa Bay; July 21 at Cape Cruz; and October 23 at
Camrioca.
1824 Cuba. In October the US$ Porpoise landed bluejackets
near Matanzas in pursuit of pirates.
1824 Puerto Rico (Spanish territory). Commodore David Porter with a
landing party attacked the town of Fajardo which had sheltered pirates and
insulted American naval officers. He landed with 200 men in November and
forced an apology. Commodore Porter was later court-martialed for overstepping
his powers.
1825 Cuba. In March cooperating American and British forces
landed at Sagua La Grande to capture pirates.
1827 Greece. In
October and November landing parties hunted pirates on the islands of
Argenteire, Miconi, and Androse.
1831-32 Falkland Islands. Captain
Duncan of the US$ Lexington investigates the capture of three American sealing
vessels seeking to protect business interests.
1832 Sumatra. February 6
to 9. A naval force landed and stormed a fort to punish natives of the town of
Quallah Battoo for plundering the American ship Friendship.
1833 Argentina. October 31 to November 15. A force was
sent ashore at Buenos Aires to protect business interests during an
insurrection.
1835-36 Peru. December 10, 1835, to January 24, 1836, and
August 31 to December 7, 1836. Marines protected business interests in Callao
and Lima during an attempted revolution.
1836 Mexico. General Gaines
occupied Nacogdoches (Tex.), disputed territory, from July to December during
the Texan war for independence, under orders to cross the "imaginary boundary
line" if an Indian outbreak threatened.
1838-39 Sumatra. December 24,
1838, to January 4, 1839. A naval force landed to punish natives of the towns
of Quallah Battoo and Muckie (Mukki) for depredations on corporate
shipping.
1840 Fiji Islands. July. Naval forces
landed to punish natives for attacking corporate exploring and surveying
parties.
1841 Drummond Island, Kingsmill Group. A naval party landed to
avenge the murder of a
seaman by the natives.
1841 Samoa. February 24. A naval party
landed and burned towns after the murder of an American seaman on Upolu Island.
1842 Mexico. Commodore T.A.C. Jones, in command of a squadron long
cruising off California, occupied Monterey, California, on October 19,
believing war had come. He discovered peace, withdrew, and
saluted. A similar incident
occurred a week later at San Diego.
1843 China. Sailors and marines
from the St. Louis were landed after a clash between Americans and Chinese at
the trading post in Canton.
1843 Africa. November 29 to December 16. Four US vessels demonstrated
and landed various parties (one of 200 marines and sailors) to discourage
piracy and the slave trade along the Ivory coast, and to punish attacks by the
natives on corporate seamen
and shipping.
1844 Mexico. President Tyler deployed US forces to
protect Texas against Mexico, pending Senate approval of a treaty of
annexation. (Later rejected.) He defended his action against
a Senate resolution of inquiry.
1846-48 Mexican War. On May 13, 1846, the US
recognized the existence of a state of war with Mexico. After the annexation of
Texas in 1845, the US and Mexico failed to resolve a boundary dispute and
President Polk deploys forces in Mexico to meet a threatened invasion.
1849 Smyrna. In July
a naval force gained release of an American seized by Austrian officials.
1851 Türkey. After a massacre of foreigners (including Americans)
at Jaffa in January, a demonstration by the Mediterranean Squadron was ordered
along the Türkish (Levant) coast.
1851 Johanns Island (east of
Africa). August. Forces from the US sloop of war Dale exacted redress
for the unlawful imprisonment of the captain of an American whaling brig.
1852-53 Argentina. February 3 to 12, 1852; September 17, 1852 to April
1853. Marines were landed and maintained in Buenos Aires to protect business
interests during a revolution.
1853 Nicaragua. March 11 to 13. US
forces landed to protect business interests during political disturbances.
1853-54 Japan. Commodore Perry and his naval expedition made a
display of force leading to the "opening of Japan."
1853-54 Ryukyu
and Bonin Islands. Commodore Perry on three visits before going to Japan and
while waiting for a reply from Japan executed a naval demonstration, landing
marines twice, and secured a coaling concession from the ruler of Naha on
Okinawa; he also demonstrated in the Bonin Islands with the purpose of securing
facilities for corporate commerce.
1854 China. April 4 to June 15 to
17. American and English ships landed forces to protect business interests in
and near Shanghai during Chinese civil strife.
1854 Nicaragua. July 9
to 15. Naval forces bombarded and burned San Juan del Norte (Greytown)
to avenge an insult to the American Minister to Nicaragua.
1855
China. May 19 to 21. US forces protected business interests in Shanghai and,
from August 3 to 5 fought pirates near Hong Kong.
1855 Fiji Islands.
September 12 to November 4. An American naval force landed to seek
reparations for depredations on
American residents and seamen.
1855 Uruguay. November 25 to 29. United
States and European naval forces landed to protect business interests during an
attempted revolution in Montevideo.
1856 Panama, Republic of New
Grenada. September 19 to 22. US forces landed to protect business interests
during an insurrection.
1856 China. October 22 to December 6. US forces
landed to protect business interests at Canton during hostilities between the
British and the Chinese, and to avenge an assault upon an unarmed boat
displaying the US flag.
1857 Nicaragua. April to May, November to
December. In May Commander C.H. Davis of the US Navy, with some marines,
received the surrender of William Walker, who had been attempting to get
control of the country, and protected his men from the retaliation of native
allies who had been fighting Walker. In November and December of the same year
US vessels Saratoga, Wabash, and Fulton opposed another attempt of William
Walker on Nicaragua. Commodore Hiram Paulding's act of landing marines and
compelling the removal of Walker to the US, was tacitly disavowed by Secretary
of State Lewis Cass, and Paulding was forced into
retirement.
1858
Uruguay Forces from two US
warships land to protect American business property during a revolution in
Montevideo.
Fiji Islands
A marine expedition
chastises natives for the murder of two American citizens at Waya.
Türkey
The Secretary of State requested a
display of naval force along the Levant after a massacre of Americans at Jaffa
and mistreatment elsewhere "to remind
the authorities of Türkey of the power of the US."
1859
Paraguay
Congress
authorized a naval squadron to seek redress for an attack on a naval
vessel in the Parana River.
Mexico
Two
hundred American soldiers crossed the Rio Grande in pursuit of the Mexican
bandit Cortina.
China
A naval force lands to
protect business interests in Shanghai.
1860
Angola,
Portuguese West Africa
American residents at Kissembo called upon
American and British ships to protect lives and property during problems with
natives.
Panama
Naval forces
land to protect business interests during a revolution.
1863
Japan
The US$
Wyoming retaliates for a firing on the American vessel Pembroke at Shimonoseki.
1864
Japan
Naval forces of the US, Great Britain, France,
and the Netherlands compel
Japan and the Prince of Nagato in particular to permit the Straits of
Shimonoseki to be used by foreign shipping in
accordance with treaties already signed.
1865
Panama
US forces protected the lives and property of American
residents during a revolution.
1866
China
US forces punish the locals for an assault on
the American consul at Newchwang.
Mexico
General Sedgwick and 100 men obtain the surrender of Matamoras.
1867
Nicaragua
Marines occupied Managua and Leon.
Formosa A naval force lands and burns a number of huts to
punish the inhabitants for the presumed murder of the crew of a wrecked
American vessel.
1868
Japan
US forces land in Osaka, Hiolo,
Nagasaki, Yokohama, and Negata to protect American corporate interests during
the civil war in Japan.
Uruguay
US forces protect foreign residents and the
customhouse during an insurrection at Montevideo.
Panama
US forces protect passengers and treasure in
transit at Colin during the absence of local police or troops on the occasion
of the death of the President of Colombia.
1870
Mexico
US forces destroy the pirate ship
Forward which had been run aground about 40 miles up the Rio
Tecapan.
1871
Korea Campaign or Sinmi-yangyo
US naval force attack
and capture five Korean forts to punish natives for depredations on Americans,
particularly for murdering the crew of the General Sherman and burning the
schooner, and later, for firing on other American small boats taking soundings
up the Salee River. Adm. Rodgers, commanding five warships and a landing party
of over 1,230 men armed with Remington carbines and
Springfield muskets attacks Choji Fortress of Kanghwa-do, and proceeds to
occupy the whole island (116.8 sq mi), killing 350 Korean defenders of the
island, and withdrawing to China only when the Korean army sends in
reinforcement armed with modern weapons.
1872 Minor C.
Keith begins acquiring banana plantations and starts to build a railroad in
Costa Rica.
1873
Colombia
US forces protected American interests during
hostilities between local groups over control of the government of the State of
Panama.
1873-96
Mexico
US troops cross the Mexican border repeatedly in
pursuit of cattle thieves and other
brigands. There were some reciprocal pursuits by Mexican troops into border
territory. Mexico protested frequently. Notable cases were at Remolina in May
1873 and at Las Cuevas in 1875. Washington orders often supported these
excursions. Agreements between Mexico and the US, the first in 1882, finally
legitimized such raids. They continued intermittently, with minor disputes,
until 1896.
1874
Hawaiian Islands Legislature elects David Kalakaua king,
resulting in a riot
led by supporters of Queen Emma. Detachments from American vessels land to
preserve order and protect American lives and interests during the coronation
of David Laamea Kamananakapu Mahinulani Naloiaehuokalani Lumialani Kalakaua.
1876
Mexico
US force lands to police the town of Matamoras, a critical transportation
hub of Boston
Fruit Company temporarily while it was without other government. US
investors clash head on with dominant British finance.
1882
Egypt
US forces land
to protect American corporate interests during warfare between British and
Egyptians and looting of the
city of Alexandria by
Arabs.
1885
Panama
US forces guard valuables in transit over the Panama Railroad
including the safes and vaults of the
United Fruit
Company during revolutionary activity.
1887
Hawaiian Islands
David
Lumialani Kalakaua is forced to sign a new constitution making the monarchy
little more than a figurehead. Local businessmen, sugar planters and
politicians backed by the Honolulu Rifles force the dismissal of the cabinet of
controversial Walter M. Gibson and force the adoption of the 1887 Constitution
of the Kingdom of Hawaii. The new documents limited voting rights exclusively
to only the literate males of the following populations: Hawaiian, European,
and American descent.
1888
Korea
A naval force was sent ashore to
protect American residents in Seoul during unsettled political conditions, when
an outbreak of the populace was expected.
Haiti
A display of force persuaded the Haitian Government
to give up an American steamer which had been seized on the charge of breach of
blockade.
Samoa
US forces land to protect
American citizens and the consulate during a native
civil war.
1889
Hawaiian Islands US forces
protect American interests at Honolulu during a revolution.
1890
Argentina A naval party
lands to protect US consulate and legation in Buenos Aires.
Alfred
Mahan, president of the US Naval College, writes the seminal The Influence
of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783.
1891
Haiti US forces protect American lives and
property on Navassa Island.
Bering Strait Naval
forces attempt to stop seal poaching.
Chile US
forces protect the American consulate and refugees during a revolution in
Valparaiso.
1893
Hawaii Marines land to promote a provisional government
under Sanford B. Dole.
"Many Americans I don't think realize that Hawaii
was an independent country before it was brought into the US. In brief, this is
the story. In the early part of the 19th century, several hundred American
missionaries, most of them from New England, sailed off to what were then
called the Sandwich Islands to devote their lives to, as they would have put
it, raising up the heathen savages and
teaching them the blessings of
Christian civilization. It wasn't long before many of these missionaries
and their sons began to realize that there was a lot of money to be made in
Hawaii. The natives had been growing sugar for a long time, but they had never
refined it and had never exported it. By dispossessing the natives of most of
their land, a group that came from what was then called this missionary planter
elite sort of left the path of God, went onto the path of Mammon and
established a series of giant sugar plantations in Hawaii, and they became very
rich from exporting sugar into the US.
In the early 1890s, the
US passed a tariff that made it
impossible for the Hawaiian sugar growers to sell their sugar in the United
States. So they were in a panic.
They were about to lose their fortunes. And they asked themselves what they
could do to somehow continue to sell their sugar in the US They came up with a
perfect answer: We'll get into the US How will we do this? Well, the leader of
the Hawaiian revolutionaries, if you want to call them that, who were mostly of
American origin, actually went to Washington. He met with the Secretary of the
Navy. He presented his case directly to the President of the US, Benjamin
Harrison. And he received assurances that the US would support a rebellion
against the Hawaiian monarchy. So he went back to Hawaii and became part of a
triumvirate, which essentially carried out the Hawaiian revolution. He was one
part of the triumvirate. The second part was the American ambassador, who was
himself an annexationist and had been instructed by the State Department to do
whatever he could to aid this revolution. And the third figure was the
commander of the US naval vessel, which was conveniently anchored right off the
shores of Honolulu. This revolution was carried out with amazing ease. The
leader of the Hawaiian revolutionaries, this missionary planter elite, simply
announced at a meeting one day, "We have overthrown the government of Hawaii,
and we are now the new government."
Before the queen was able to
respond, the US ambassador called 250 Marines ashore from a ship conveniently
off the coast of Honolulu announcing instability caused regime change, the
Marines landed to protect the new
regime, lives and property of all Hawaiians.
So that meant that
there was nothing the queen could do. The regime was immediately recognized by the
US, and with that simple process, the monarchy of Hawaii came to an end, and
then ultimately Hawaii joined the US" - Stephen Kinzer
1894
Brazil A display of naval
force protects American commerce and
shipping at Rio de Janeiro
during a Brazilian civil war.
1894 Nicaragua. July 6 to August 7. US forces sought to protect
American interests at Bluefields following a revolution.
1894-96
Korea From July 24, 1894 to April 3, 1896 marines
protect the American legation and American lives and interests at Seoul during
and following the Sino-Japanese War.
1895
Colombia
US forces protected American interests during an
attack on the town of Bocas del Toro by a bandit chieftain.
China
A naval vessel is beached and used as a fort at
Newchwang for protection of American nationals.
Marines are stationed
at Tientsin and penetrate Peking during the Sino-Japanese War.
1896
Nicaragua US forces protect American interests in Corinto
during political unrest.
1898 Spanish-American
War
On April 25, 1898, the US declares war with Spain. The
war followes a Cuban insurrection against Spanish rule and the sinking of the
US$ Maine in the harbor at Havana when her forward gunpowder magazines
explode.
"Americans have had their eye on Cuba for a long time, ever
since Thomas
Jefferson was president. But it was in 1898 that this attachment to the
cause of Cuba Libré really seized the hearts of many Americans. Bear in
mind that in 1898, the Cuban economy was totally dominated by Americans. It was
a big sugar producer, and all the sugar plantations in Cuba were owned by
Americans. Also, it was a very big market for American manufactured goods.
About 85% of anything you could buy in Cuba had been made in the US, so
American business had very big interests there. Now, Cuban patriots spent much
of the late 19th century rebelling against Spanish colonial rule. In 1898 they
seemed very close to succeeding. This was a little bit troubling to some of the
American interests in Cuba, because the revolutionaries were also social
reformers. They advocated land reform, which would have meant breaking up the
big sugar plantations owned by Americans.
They also supported a tariff wall around Cuba to allow the
growth of domestic manufacturing, which would have made it more difficult for
American companies to export their goods to Cuba.
In 1898, the American press, in some ways
excited by whisperings from American
businessmen active in Cuba, began
a campaign to portray
Spanish colonial rule in Cuba as the most unspeakably brutal tyranny that could
be imagined, and the
American public was whipped up into a fervor about this. The fervor
intensified when the US battleship, Maine, was blown up in Havana harbor. "Our
Warship Was Blown Up by an Enemy's Infernal Machine." That was the headline in
the New York Journal that I reproduce in my book. Actually, it wasn't until 75
years later that the Navy convened a board of inquiry, which turned up the fact
that the Maine was actually blown up by an internal explosion.
Congress, passed a law, the Teller Amendment, which said
very explicitly, "We promise Cuba that the moment independence is won, all
American troops will be withdrawn, and Cuba
will be allowed to become fully independent."
The Americans announced
that they changed their mind, that the Teller Amendment had been passed in
a moment of irrational enthusiasm and
that actually Cuban independence was not a very good idea, so the American
troops were not withdrawn. We remained in Cuba for some decades, ruling it
directly under US military officers, and then, for a period after that, through
local dictators.
The press played a really shameful role in the run-up
to the Spanish-American
War. The Americans had never been particularly fond of the Spanish rule in
Cuba, but it wasn't until the press, actually in a circulation war,
decided to seize on the
brutality, as they called it, of Spanish colonial rule
in the summer of 1898 that
Americans really went crazy.
Hearst was a crucial figure, who
very cleverly realized that he could push the circulation of his newspaper
dramatically higher if he hammered away on jingoistic issues by pointing at
foreign nations as constantly seeking to undermine the United States." -
Stephen Kinzer
The US 'purchases'
'jurisdiction' of the Spanish Colonial Empire with the Treaty of
Paris.
Spain relinquishes nearly all of the remaining Spanish
Empire, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States. The
cession of the Philippines involves a
payment of $20 million from the United States to Spain. The treaty is signed on
December 10, 1898, and ends the Spanish–American War.
Spanish-American War
pushes Manifest Destiny
deep into the Pacific annexing the colonial empire of Spain: Cuba, Puerto Rico,
Guam, and the Philippines.
A genocidal war is waged against the Filipino
people.
Kingdom of Hawaii is conquered and the Native Hawaiian people
(the Kanaka Maoli) are subjected to
near genocidal conditions.
China
November 5, 1898 to March 15, 1899. US forces
provided a guard for the legation at Peking and the consulate at Tientsin
during contest between the Dowager Empress and her son.
Nicaragua
February 7 US forces protected American lives and
property at San Juan del Sur.
Guam
On May 9, the US Naval War Board advised Secretary of
the Navy John Davis Long that the US should seize the Spanish possession of
Guam in Micronesia. June 20, the US$ Charleston sailed into Guam's Apra Harbor
and fires a few cannon
shots.
1899
Nicaragua
American and British naval forces are
landed to protect corporate interests at San Juan del Norte, February 22 to
March 5, and at Bluefields a few weeks later in connection with the
insurrection of Gen. Juan P. Reyes.
Samoa
February-May 15. American and British naval forces land to protect corporate
interests and to take part in a bloody contention over the succession to the
throne.
Philippine
Islands US forces protect corporate interests following the war with
Spain and conquer the islands by defeating the Filipinos in their war for
independence.
On June 2, 1899, the First Philippine Republic officially
declared war against the United States.
The war officially ended on July
2, 1902 with a victory for the United States.
General Macario Sakay, a
veteran Katipunan member assumed presidency of the "Tagalog Republic" formed in
1902 after the capture of President Emilio Aguinaldo. Other groups continued
hostilities in remote areas and islands, including the Moro people and
Pulahanes people, until their final defeat at the Battle of Bud Bagsak on June
15, 1913. |
|
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